The study was conducted in four districts of the Borana zone of a pastoral and agro-pastoral area, namely Gomole, Yabello, Dirre, and Moyale (Figure 1). Borana Zone is found in the southern part of Ethiopia. It shares borders with the west Guji zone to the north, the south Ethiopia regional state to the west, the east Borana zone to the northeast and east, the Somali regional state to the southeast, and Kenya to the south. The Borana zone has four major seasons. These include Gannaa (long rainy season), Adoolessa (cool dry season), Hagayya (short rainy season), and Bona (hot dry season). The main rainy season extends from March to May, whereas the short rainy season lasts from October to November, followed by the long dry season (Worku et al., 2022). The short rains are unreliable, and variable rainfall results in greater variability in forage productivity (Coppock, 1994; Wako et al., 2017). Rainfall is bimodal; 60% of the rainfall occurs between March and May (the main rainy season), followed by a minor peak between September and November (the short rainy season) (Worku et al., 2022). The annual mean maximum and minimum temperatures were 29.66°C and 16.31°C, respectively (Wako et al., 2017).

The Borana area is characterized by pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems (Dirriba et al., 2020b). Livestock production is the primary source of income for the Borana pastoral and agro-pastoral communities. The major livestock kept in Borana areas are cattle, camels, goats, and sheep (Wako et al., 2017). The main feed resources of the area are natural pastures (herbaceous vegetation composed mainly of grasses and forbs and browses such as shrubs, tree leaves, and pods), which show marked seasonal variation in availability and quality based on the variability of rainfall distribution. Besides livestock production, crop production is also practiced in the area. The crop production practice is gradually expanding from the agro-pastoral to the pastoral areas (Wako et al., 2017; Abara et al., 2020).

A preliminary assessment was conducted to get general information on recent camel production and to identify potential camel producer districts to set the research design and to determine the sample size. Thus, a three-stage sampling procedure was employed to select study areas and samples of respondents. In the first stage, four districts, namely Gomole, Yabello, Moyale, and Dirre, were selected purposefully based on their camel production potential, access to the market, and accessibility to roads and towns. In the second stage, the same procedure was followed to select two kebeles (the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia) from each district, namely Dese-gora and Haro-Bake from Gomole, Dida-Yabello and Dherito from Yabello, Dambi-Sabante and Laga-Sure from Moyale, and Did-Jarsa and Mana Soda from Dirre district. In the third stage, purposefully camel-herding households with camels and production experience in camels, as well as willingness to interview, were selected from these villages. The current number of camel owners (3,825 camel herders) was obtained from the selected kebeles offices, from which 260 sample respondents aged 45 and older were chosen purposively. Since younger age groups are less expected to perceive climate change variability compared to older age groups (Debela et al., 2015). The required sample size was determined based on an adopted formula following Yamane (1967) and Israel (1992), with the most often used at a 95% confidence interval and 6% precision level. n = N 1 + N   e 2 (1)

Where n is sample size, N = total household of selected kebeles, e = is precision level.

Sample size n = 3825 1 + 3825   0.06 2 = 259 ≈ 260

The sample size for each kebele was allocated according to Bowley (1925) formula as follows. n i = n N i N (2)

Where ni = assigned sample size of kebele, n = Total sample size, Ni = Household size of single kebele, N = Total household size.

Before the formal survey, a pre-test survey was conducted to collect general background information about the study areas. The information that was collected in the pre-test survey helps to guide the development of the formal survey questionnaire. A personal interview was made with respondents using trained enumerators under close supervision of the researcher. A fully structured, pre-tested questionnaire, personal observations, and discussions were held with household respondents and key informants in the kebele of each district. Ten key informants were purposefully selected from the same respondents used for the household (HH) survey study earlier to undertake a focused group discussion on the general issue that was not addressed during the individual HH survey study and to validate the information gathered in direct interviews. To achieve the objective of this study, the following major data were collected: Data on the respondent’s socioeconomic profile and the perceptions of camel herders on climate variability, such as temperature trend, rainfall amount, its distribution, variability, and other related data, were collected. Moreover, causes and impacts of climate variability, preference of livestock species, opportunity for camel production, and coping strategies for camel production in relation to climate variability were collected. Both primary and secondary data were collected from kebele, districts, zonal offices, and other stakeholders. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGD), and key informant interviews (KII) on productive knowledge and perceptions of camel production in relation to climate variability in the selected districts.

Survey data were collected using the discussion points listed in the questionnaire. The assessment was conducted by explaining the significance of the survey and maintaining a comfortable atmosphere by interesting to the nature of respondents’ pride. Furthermore, the prepared questionnaires were translated into the local language (Afan Oromo). Respondents were interviewed following the face-to-face survey method using the door-to-door approach. For information on climate change and variability, thirty-four years (1990–2023) of daily maximum and minimum temperature and rainfall data were taken from the Ethiopian National Meteorology Institute to analyze rainfall and temperature trends in the study sites. Based on production system and location, among the four selected districts, Yabello and Moyale were selected since the majority of respondents in Yabello district are agro-pastoralists, whereas the majority of respondents in Moyale district are pastoralists. The daily records of climate data were missing, with about 6.42% of rainfall and 5.2% of temperature. However, the missed values were assumed based on the estimation method of climatological data, where the missing values equal the mean of the same period of non-missing years (Hasanpour and Dinpashoh, 2012; Iwueze et al., 2018).

A key informant interview was conducted to obtain a general overview of the perceptions of pastoral and agro-pastoral practices on camel production under climate variability and the impacts of climate variability on camel production, as well as the socio-economics of the communities following (Geilfus, 2008). Accordingly, ten key interview checklists were developed using semi-structured dialogue methods. Ten key informant elders (8 camel herders as well as 2 government experts) were selected and interviewed. The respondent’s knowledge and experience about a topic were determined by his or her age. Thus, more than forty-five-year-old participants from both sexes were purposefully selected to obtain relevant information on their perceptions of camel production in relation to climate variability (Geilfus, 2008). Four FGDs, one in each district consisting of 6–8 participants, were employed.

The demographic characteristics of the research areas are presented by the respondents in Table 1. Table 1 shows that 81.34% and 18.66% of the 260 camel herders were men and women, respectively. The age distribution of the respondents was 53.85% for those between 45 and 54, 26.15% for those between 55 and 64, and 20% for those over 65. With a mean age of 57.15 years, the sample of respondent household heads ranged in age from 45 to 90 years old. Older age groups are crucial for obtaining better information on long-term climate variability than younger age groups (Frumkin et al., 2012). Although household heads have an impact on providing valuable information and adaptation to climate change and variability (Demem, 2023), younger age groups are less expected to perceive climate change variability compared to older age groups (Debela et al., 2015). The majority of camel herders have no formal education. Among respondents' educational status, 91.15% were so illiterate that they neither went to school nor wrote or read. On the other hand, among respondents, 1.15%, 6.16%, and 1.54% were reading and writing, primary school, and above secondary school, respectively. The result showed that 63.46% of respondents utilized a pastoral production system, while 36.54% engaged in agro-pastoral production. The survey shows that 75.77% of respondents inherited camel farming from their family, while 24.23% started camel production by themselves (Table 1).

Camel herders were interviewed about any change in climate variability in terms of changing temperature and rainfall conditions over the last three decades. The perceptions of camel herders about the causes of climate change and variability are illustrated in Figure 2. Camel herders ranked natural resource depletion, deforestation, land use change, the normal trend of climate change, and poor soil and water management as first, second, third, fourth, and fifth, respectively. Similarly, it has been reported that increased rates of deforestation, irresponsible use of natural resources, and poor management of soil and water are listed as the major causes of climate change (Mihiretu et al., 2021).

It was reported that the depletion of natural resources such as forests, water, and minerals was due to unsustainable use of natural resources, which leads to considerable environmental damage and climate change (Steer, 2014; Huo and Peng, 2023). Currently, depletion of natural resources is the most challenging problem in the world (Huo and Peng, 2023). Deforestation also contributes to climate change, which has many negative significances, including degradation of soils, the loss of biodiversity, disruption of hydrological cycles, and desertification (Kasu, 2022; Leon et al., 2022). Land use changes are often considered a response to climate change, and they directly contribute to biodiversity loss. It has been reported that changes in land use and cover continue to affect weather and climate on a local to global scale by altering the flow of energy, water, and greenhouse gases between the land and the atmosphere (Yahaya et al., 2024). Natural events that causes climate change such as solar activity, orbital parameters, and volcanic eruptions are among others, on the other hand, human activities that arise from a variety of activities that release greenhouse gases are major (Saroar and Filho, 2016). Poor soil and water management are contributing to climate change. Reductions in soil carbon might increase greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere as a result, contributing to climate change (Rodrigues et al., 2023). Climate change-related fluctuations in the availability of water resources are concerning because many regions are seeing an increase in the severity of droughts and flooding (Ciampittiello et al., 2024).

Camel herders of Borana perceived how the climate was changing in terms of temperature, rainfall, and frequency of droughts presented in Table 2. In comparison to continuous temperature conditions over time, a significant (P < 0.001) percentage of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in the study area perceived increased temperature trends (86.92%), and they also noticed a significantly increasing temperature extremity (82.31%). Similar findings were made by Habte et al. (2022) and Salah et al. (2024), who found that pastoral and agro-pastoral groups believed the temperature was rising. The values of the chi-square test of the survey results showed that the perceptions among respondents on the variability of rainfall, its onset, amount, duration, and intensity, as well as the frequency of drought, were significantly (P < 0.001) different in the study area.

The survey result showed that among camel herders who perceived climate variability, 68.46% and 22.31% stated rainfall variability was high and medium, respectively, whereas 26% did not know. Among total respondents, 86.54%, 3.08%, 8.45%, and 1.54% of them perceived that the set of rainfall was started late, early, irregularly, and on time, respectively. The results also showed that 74.23% of respondents perceived that rainfall was decreasing, whereas 11.92% and 13.85% perceived that rainfall was decreasing and irregular, respectively, over the last 34 years. In contrast with the current study, Gatew and Guyo (2024) reported a higher perceived percentage (86%) of Borana camel herders who perceived that rainfall amounts were decreasing. In the study, among respondents who perceived climate variability, 73.38%, 11.92%, and 12.69% observed that the duration of rainfall was short, normal, and irregular, respectively. Camel herders also responded, respectively, that 26.92% and 73.08% of them perceived the intensity of rainfall as increasing and decreasing.

Based on Borana zone camel producers indigenous experiences of climate change occurrence, which included variations in the quantity, duration, and intensity of rainfall as well as variations in the number of rainy days during the season and the severity of drought, the majority of camel herders were, in general, aware of climate change and its conditions. The survey results showed that the majority of camel herder communities perceived an impacts of drought in the last 34 years. Respondents reported that a severe and prolonged drought occurred for five consecutive seasons, which affected overall livestock species production and productivity with the deaths of over 3 million cattle in the Borana zone. In general, decreasing seasonal rainfall, its uneven and unpredicted seasonal distribution, and increased temperature are the major factors in the climate condition to which camel herders responded, which affect the overall production and productivity of their livestock, including camels. Similar to this, a recent study in the Moyale district of Somalia’s regional state of Ethiopia found that climate change and variability had a significant impact on livestock productivity, which was severely affected by drought in pastoral and agro-pastoral areas (Salah et al., 2024). According to reports, since the 1970s, Ethiopia has typically experienced a rise in the frequency of climate change and variability. The agriculture of Ethiopia is mostly dependent on seasonal and yearly rainfall, which has a detrimental effect on the socioeconomic growth of the country (Wubaye et al., 2023; Salah et al., 2024).

Camel herders prioritized the detrimental effects of climate change and variability on camel production according to their perspectives (Table 3). Respondents ranked the impacts of shortage of feed and water, low productivity, low reproductive rate, occurrence of disease, and death of camels first, second, third, fourth, and fifth, respectively. Camel herders stated about the degradation of rangeland and the recent replacement of camel browse forages with grass and unpalatable plants. This situation could lead to the destruction of edible forage species and a decrease in the amount of forage available in the rangeland. The responders stated that during the prolonged and severe drought, water supplies had been reduced or their points had dried up, in addition to the shortage of camel feeds.

During the focus group discussion and key informant interviews, it was also brought up that the frequency and severity of droughts result in the loss of palatable forage species and a decrease in the amount of forage available on rangelands. In addition, they revealed that, due to recurrent and severe droughts, a shortage of water was turning into a significant disaster risk for Borana pastoral and agro-pastoral areas. Respondents explained that Oromia Regional State is constructing different water points called “Finnaa” in Borana areas to reduce the impact of climate variability on the availability of livestock feed and water. A recent study in southern Ethiopia found that drought, temperature rise, and variations in rainfall are the main causes of climate risks. There appears to be a higher level of climate risk in this area because the annual rainfall variability (20%–35%) is higher than the overall estimate for Eastern Africa (15%–25%) (Shibru et al., 2023).

Camel herders reported the incidence of camel diseases and deaths because of the impact of climate change and variability. Scientific reports state that camels have the ability to withstand droughts and newly developing diseases. However, the loss of camels has been reported during disastrous drought conditions (Habte et al., 2022; Megersa et al., 2024). The vulnerability of livestock to climate change and variability varies across species based on their adaptive mechanisms (Wako et al., 2017). Camels are considered to have more adaptive mechanisms than any other livestock species in arid and semi-arid areas. However, respondents in the study area stated that the productive and reproductive performance of camels have been affected in the past 34 years by climate change and variability. According to Habte et al. (2022) and Al-Jassim and Sejian (2015), the production of camel milk is considerably impacted by climate change and variability. High temperatures and climate variability have a detrimental impact on camel milk production, general health, feed intake, and other issues related to camel herd health.

The trends in camel population and consumption of camel milk are displayed in Figures 3A, B, respectively, in the study areas. In the present study, the majority of respondents revealed that the trends of camel population (67.70%) were increasing, whereas camel milk consumption (64.23%) was decreasing per household. In agreement with the current study, in pastoral areas, milk from camels and goats is the most beneficial; however, daily milk consumption decreases in pastoral areas due to a lack of availability and access to milk in the dry season (Gaffney, 2019). It was reported that there seems to be inconsistency regarding reports on trends in camel herd size per household. However, increasing trends in ownership of camels by Borana herders were reported (Mirkena et al., 2018). The demand for camel milk has also increased dramatically due to its outstanding therapeutic properties and health-promoting effects (Jrad et al., 2024). In contrast, a recent study conducted in India revealed the decline in their population is attributed to a decrease in their use for agriculture and transportation, as well as a decrease in demand for camel milk and milk products (Saharan et al., 2023).

The preference of livestock species for production by camel herders under the current climate viability is indicated in Table 4. Pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in the southern Ethiopian region of Borana rear different livestock species (livestock diversification). In the study area, they keep camels, cows, goats, and sheep as domestic livestock to produce milk. The two main milk-producing animals in the region are camels and cows. Because of the resistive drought at the study sites, the respondents strongly preferred the production of camels, followed by goats. Camel, goat, cattle, and sheep production ranked first, second, third, and fourth, respectively, in terms of choice with regard to climate fluctuation and recurring drought. According to a study conducted on how climate variability affects livestock production in southeast Ethiopia, camels and goats are thought to be drought-resistant animals, and cattle keepers in Borana are switching to raising more of these animals in response to the current drought (Worku et al., 2022). Another study also stated that Borana pastoralists chose camels due to the shifting dynamics of rangeland vegetation and the encroachment of bushes in southern Ethiopia (Wako et al., 2017).

The opportunities for camel production over other livestock species in the study area under climate viability are shown in Figure 4. The result of the current study shows that the drought resistance of camels was the first opportunity under climate variability, followed by goats producing milk for a longer time during drought, high milk production, and a high market price compared to other milking animals in the study area. Furthermore, camel herders revealed that camels produce milk more and for longer during prolonged droughts than other animals they use for milk production in the study area. In agreement with the current study, for pastoral communities, camels are useful in various ways. They can be used as a source of food through direct consumption, the production of income, a method of transportation, the accumulation of wealth, ritualistic activities, and, in some cases, as a means of draught power. Ethiopia has a long history of raising camels, and the country’s camel population has occasionally expanded (Kena, 2022). Another study also revealed that camels are essential to many socioeconomic aspects of the nation’s culture, including traditional celebrations and other ceremonies, food security, a source of income, the exchange of gifts, and a major supply of animal protein for pastoral communities. They offer a special chance for arid and semi-arid regions to adapt to droughts and different pasture qualities (Asiimwe et al., 2020b).

Camel herders’ perceptions and the existing analysis confirmed that camels’ potential for high milk production and their capacities to withstand harsh environmental conditions are among the many reasons that contributed to the adoption of camels by pastoralists in southern Ethiopia (Wako et al., 2017). Another study conducted in the Algerian Sahara revealed that camels have the ability to produce milk for a longer period in harsh environments with extreme temperatures, drought, and a lack of pasture (Boudalia et al., 2023). Pastoralists in southern Ethiopia adopted camels for a variety of reasons, including the animals’ potential for high milk production and their ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions (Wako et al., 2017). According to Boudalia et al. (2023), additional research carried out in the Algerian Sahara has demonstrated that camels possess the capacity to yield milk for an extended duration in challenging conditions such as high temperatures, drought, and scarcity of grass. Generally, in the perspective of a changing climate, particularly camels hold great potential as a substitute source of income for low-income and marginal pastoralists and agro-pastoralists (Kandil et al., 2023).

In Borana areas, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists of camel herders have been developing various climate change adaptations and strategies over the last few years that help them to minimize the impacts of climate change and variability on their livestock production. The present study has shown that respondents ranked six dominant adaptation and coping strategies to overcome what they perceived as changing climate and variability in the study areas, as illustrated in Table 5. The study results show that herd mobility was ranked first, followed by livestock diversification, shifting to browser species, livestock selling (destocking), feed conservation during the rainy season, and traditional social insurance with an index value of 0.23, 0.21, 0.17, 0.16, 0.14, and 0.09, respectively, for adapting and coping mechanisms from the impacts of climate change and recurrent drought (Table 5). According to the identified respondents’ climate adaptation strategies, herd mobility is the primary adaptation mechanism that camel herders practice for coping with the impact of climate change. In agreement with the present study, recent studies in the Korahey Zone of Somali Regional State revealed that herd mobility to remote areas was among the three most common adaptation and coping livestock-related strategies as responses to climate and variability (Kemal et al., 2022).

Respondents ranked second herd diversification as the mechanism of engaging in the production of various livestock species such as camels, cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, and poultry to reduce massive livestock losses during different climate change and variability. Shifting to browser species was ranked as the third important strategy of climate change adaptation practiced by camel herders in the study area. Respondents indicated that they favor browsing animals like camels and goats, which are more drought-tolerant and can subsist on browsing forages to adapt to extreme climate change and recurrent drought. Similar to this study, during times of feed scarcity, livestock such as camels and goats can survive by browsing trees and bushes since they are resilient to the impacts of drought (Mekuyie and Mulu, 2021). In line with the present study, due to their exceptional resistance to drought and adverse weather, pastoralist groups in Ethiopia, including those in the Borana pastoral and agro-pastoral zones, have placed a greater emphasis on camel production than they have on other livestock species, especially cattle. As a means of adapting to the severity of recurring droughts, Borana communities have engaged in considerable livestock species diversification, with a particular emphasis on camel production and management (Wako et al., 2017; Kena, 2022). In agreement with this finding, goats are also preferred animals that are able to continue producing even in harsh environmental conditions because of their effective browsing activity and efficient digestive systems. These characteristics make goat breeding essential for reducing and mitigating the adverse effects of climate change (Koluman, 2023).

Camel herders ranked the major adaptation mechanism of selling livestock or destocking fourth. According to respondents, selling livestock is common in the study area to meet immediate needs for household goods or other necessities. Respondents stated that selling cattle lowers risk and makes it less likely that animals will die as a result of the effects of climate change, particularly during prolonged droughts. Due to a lack of feed and water, animals were unable to withstand prolonged droughts; hence, camel herders were able to sell their herds during these times. In line with the findings of the current study, the majority of pastoralists in the Korahey Zone of Somali Regional State used to sell their livestock during climate change events, primarily droughts (Boudalia et al., 2023).

Moreover, feed conservation during the rainy season is also another important adaptation mechanism that was ranked fifth by camel herders in Borana pastoral and agro-pastoral areas. Respondents revealed that the storage of animal feeds like standing hay, some crop residues, and concentrates is one of the adaptation strategies to climate change. In line with the present study, pastoralists used the storage of livestock feeds and fodder as one of the major adaptation strategies to climate change (Boudalia et al., 2023; Assane and Waoundé, 2023).

Furthermore, the six important adaptation mechanisms ranked by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists to cope with climate change and variability were traditional social insurance. Respondents revealed that, together with the cultures of long history, traditional social assistance is integral to Borana society. It was found that in the southern region of Ethiopia, Borana clans support one another through Buusaa Gonofaa, which distributes food and other resources; Dabaree, which lends out cows for milking and other animals; and Irbaa, which offers common assistance when disease or drought causes animals to be lost (Mengistu, and Haji, 2016; Wako et al., 2023).