AUTHOR=Kakavand Nassim , Coemans Maarten , de Ferrante Hans C. , Kolbrink Benedikt , Ziemann Malte , Radke David I. , Lindner Matthias , Naesens Maarten , Schmitt Roland , Schulte Kevin , von Samson-Himmelstjerna Friedrich A. 
  
TITLE=A discrete time simulation model for kidney allocation in Germany
  
JOURNAL=Transplant International
  
VOLUME=Volume 39 - 2026
  
YEAR=2026
  
URL=https://www.frontierspartnerships.org/journals/transplant-international/articles/10.3389/ti.2026.16189
  
DOI=10.3389/ti.2026.16189
  
ISSN=1432-2277
  
ABSTRACT=The ongoing shortage of kidney donations increases pressure to optimize utility and equity in kidney allocation; simulation models allow evaluation of policy changes before implementation. Using data from the German national transplant registry (19,517 kidney transplants), human leukocyte antigen (HLA) information from the German bone marrow donor registry, and the Eurotransplant database, we developed a discrete time simulation model that reconstructs the current German kidney allocation process. To validate the model, we simulated the period from 2006 to 2017 and compared simulated and historical outputs. Waiting list size, numbers of removals and transplants, age distributions, HLA mismatch counts, and predicted long-term survival were highly similar to historic data, indicating solid calibration. As an exemplary application for the allocation model, we explored the effects of omitting the European Senior Program (ESP) from Eurotransplant kidney allocation. This alleviated disparities in waiting time for younger adults and slightly improved overall transplant survival rates, but it worsened access to transplantation for older patients. In conclusion, this discrete time simulation model provides a tool for assessing policy trade-offs on a variety of outcomes before clinical implementation. Further work is needed to generalize the model to the full Eurotransplant area.